Hungary’s Nationalist Defiance: Orbán’s EU Struggles and the Shadow of History
By Antoine Felitti
Hungary’s relationship with the European Union has been increasingly strained over the past decade, as Prime Minister Viktor Orbán’s nationalist policies challenge the EU’s core democratic principles. Rooted in a history of foreign domination, Hungary's political culture has long emphasized sovereignty and resistance to external influence. This article explores the historical and ideological foundations of Hungary’s defiance, its shifting alliances, and the broader implications of its contested role within the European Union.
Central and Eastern Europe is the region with the most countries in Europe today, totaling 21 countries. However, this wasn’t always the case. Many of these nations were historically dominated by larger empires due to their small size and central geographical position. Despite its rich medieval heritage, Hungary is no exception. Hungary was first incorporated into the Ottoman Empire in 1526 and later into the Austrian Empire in 1699, and only achieved independence in 1918. However, Hungary's independence was short-lived, as the country was occupied by Nazi Germany in 1944 and the Soviet Union in 1945. Given its complex historical trajectory, Hungary developed a strong sense of nationalism and patriotism, shaped by its prolonged struggles for independence and resistance to foreign domination. These sentiments were particularly evident during major national uprisings, notably in 1848 and 1956, events that remain deeply ingrained in Hungary's collective memory.
Subsequently, ever since the fall of communism in 1989, a strong resistance to foreign intervention in governance has remained a defining characteristic of Hungary’s political culture. Indeed, many in Hungarian society and politics continue to express concerns that the country’s political leadership has merely shifted from Moscow to Brussels. Consequently, since joining the European Union in 2004, Hungary has frequently contested European directives across multiple policy areas, asserting its national sovereignty. This nationalist drive for self-governance facilitated the rise of Viktor Orbán’s party, Fidesz, which came to power in 2010. Since then, Orbán has sought to progressively consolidate his hold over Hungarian society and the judiciary system, exerting influence over the media while suppressing opposition to reinforce his authority.
Hungary’s democratic backsliding became particularly evident in 2014 when Orbán delivered a speech to ethnic Hungarians in Romania, stating his intent to transform Hungary into an “illiberal new state based on national values”. This shift towards an undemocratic governance model has had a lasting impact on Hungary’s relationship with the European Union. Its refusal to uphold the EU’s democratic principles and comply with its directives has led to a growing rift between Brussels and Budapest. Overall, Hungary’s position within the EU can be summarized by the words of Daniel Freund, a German European deputy writing that “Hungary in its current state would never pass the accession criteria to join the EU”, exemplifying this rupture between the two parties.
A recent dispute between Fidesz and the European Commission centered on the implementation of "sovereignty laws," which stipulate that foreign NGOs cannot conduct investigations in Hungary without government supervision or approval. Justified by the Hungarian government as a measure to protect the country from undue foreign influence, this legislation exemplifies the broader ideological confrontation between Orbán’s illiberal governance model and the EU’s commitment to democratic principles. Further disputes have arisen over Orbán’s disregard for human rights, particularly his June 2024 decree that revoked state-funded shelter for many Ukrainian refugees, especially those from regions not officially classified as "war-torn." This policy, which directly violates EU law, has resulted in approximately 3,000 refugees (primarily women and children) being left homeless. Moreover, Orbán’s nationalism carries irredentist undertones, posing a source of tension with other EU member states. His rhetoric advocating for a "Greater Hungary," aimed at restoring the country's pre-Trianon borders, when Hungary lost 60% of its territory and a third of its population, has fueled regional anxieties. Since many of these territories now belong to Romania, Croatia, and Ukraine, Orbán’s public references to this historical revisionism, including his speeches, clothing, and the establishment of museums dedicated to the topic, have exacerbated diplomatic friction within the EU.
Hungary’s clashes with the European Union and its directives can also be understood in the context of its great conservative culture. Hungarian nationalism is closely tied to Christianity, and its associated conservative values have contributed to a strong rejection of progressive ideas and movements promoted by the EU, particularly concerning feminism, LGBTQ+ rights, and multiculturalism. Since coming to power in 2010, Orbán has introduced significant constitutional amendments that have directly impacted women’s rights. Notable examples include the banning of gender studies in universities in 2018, the abolition of the Equal Treatment Authority in 2020, the 2022 restrictions on abortion rights limiting access to specific cases, and an overarching emphasis on women’s roles as wives and mothers. Similarly, LGBTQ+ rights have long been a contentious issue in Hungarian society, a situation exacerbated by the passage of the 2021 “Propaganda Law,” which bans the discussion and representation of homosexuality to minors in all media, a position which Fidesz isn’t willing to back down from. Finally, Hungary has always maintained a hardline position on immigration. In 2015, it erected barbed-wire fences along its southern borders with Serbia and Croatia, while in 2018, Orbán referred to migrants as “Muslim invaders.” Reaffirming in 2024 its will to fight back against European efforts to “impose” migration policies regardless of any ruling of the European Court of Justice, Orban openly criticizes the European political mainstream arguing that it does not represent the true interests or values of the Hungarian and European people. Nevertheless, these actions have only deepened the rift between Hungary and the EU, as they directly contradict the anti-discrimination commitments outlined in the Copenhagen Criteria.
However, until recently, Hungary was not the only country contesting European directives. Poland has been Hungary’s closest ally for many years, sharing a similar culture rooted in conservative and Christian values, as well as a common historical memory of resistance and struggles for national self-governance against European empires and the Soviet Union. This longstanding bond between the so-called "two brothers" has, however, deteriorated in recent years, particularly under Poland’s new leadership led by Donald Tusk, who has sought to rebuild friendlier relations with Brussels. Tusk has thus become increasingly vocal in his criticism of Hungary’s undemocratic policies and disregard for European values. However, the most significant rupture between the two countries, and a major source of tension, lies in their radically different approaches to Russia. Given its historical experiences of invasion, geographical proximity, and repeated threats from the Kremlin, Poland perceives Russia as an existential threat. Consequently, Poland has emerged as one of the EU and NATO’s leading advocates for military and financial support to Ukraine, becoming the highest contributor to NATO as a percentage of GDP, surpassing even the United States. In contrast, Hungary has maintained the closest relationship with Russia of any EU member state.
In recent years, Hungary has significantly deepened its economic ties with the Kremlin, particularly in the energy sector. Russia is estimated to supply approximately 80% of Hungary’s natural gas, 40% of its oil, and a significant share of its nuclear fuel. Following the collapse of communism, many former Soviet states maintained economic relations with Moscow. However, while most diversified their economic partnership over the years, Hungary remains an exception, having never fully disengaged from Russian energy dependence. Russian energy is often more cost-effective due to long-standing contracts and infrastructure compatibility dating back to the Soviet era. Moreover, the Orban administration reinforced this economic partnership in 2014, when Hungary and Russia agreed to expand the Paks Nuclear Power Plant. This project, financed through a €10 billion Russian loan, exemplifies Hungary’s continued reliance on Russian technology and financial backing, securing long-term energy cooperation between the two countries.
Therefore, Hungary’s economy significantly benefits from trade and strong relations with Russia. However, as an EU member, Hungary has formally participated in EU-wide sanctions against Russia, including asset freezes, travel bans on individuals, and restrictions on key sectors such as finance, energy, and defense. However, these measures have only accentuated Hungary’s ongoing economic struggles, including record-high inflation of the forint. As a result, Hungary has repeatedly sought to minimize the impact of sanctions on its own economy, arguing for exemptions and remaining a vocal critic of European military support for Ukraine. Orbán openly criticized Biden's decision to allow Ukraine to use US weapons to strike Russia, refused to send military aid notably vetoing a 50 billion $ aid package in December 2023 (eventually passed in January 2024), and has continued to hold diplomatic visits with Vladimir Putin. However, following Donald Trump’s new threats of greater sanctions if the Kremlin were to not comply with his peace deal, Orban revisited his position weighing support for the first time to the EU’s renewal of sanctions.
Orbán's alignment with Donald Trump’s stance on the conflict in Ukraine reflects his broader strategy of fostering closer ties with the new U.S. administration, whose ideological positions largely overlap with his own. Since Trump’s initial presidential campaign in 2016, Orbán has been his most vocal European supporter, being the only European leader who endorsed his first campaign and consistently praising his leadership style and policies. This support has been reciprocated where during the presidential debate for the 2024 election, Trump described Orbán as one of the world’s "most respected men" emphasizing their strong rapport. As a result, Orbán has sought to increasingly align with Washington’s foreign policy, often at the expense of European Union positions. A policy evident in Orban’s decision to challenge the International Criminal Court (ICC) arrest warrant for Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu. Furthermore, while relations between the European Union and the United States are at a record low given Trump’s threats of tariffs, Orbán keeps moving closer to him, notably being one of the few European leaders invited to Trump’s inauguration.
Nevertheless, despite his efforts to strengthen relations with the Trump administration, Orban has simultaneously deepened Hungary’s ties with The United States’ greatest rival: China. Indeed, in an attempt to balance its EU membership with closer engagement with non-Western powers, Hungary has pursued a pragmatic foreign policy known as the “Eastern Opening,” aimed at fostering stronger economic partnerships beyond the European Union. Within this framework, China has expanded its influence in Central and Eastern Europe through significant investments as part of its Belt and Road Initiative to improve infrastructure and increase connectivity across the region. The Hungary-Serbia Railway project, partially financed by Chinese investments, exemplifies Hungary’s strategic position within Beijing’s global project and its broader objective of diversifying economic partnerships. Consequently, Hungary has refrained from labeling China a “systemic rival,” as the European Union has done, and has repeatedly obstructed EU statements critical of China’s human rights violations in Xinjiang and its crackdown on political freedoms in Hong Kong.
Hungary’s continued defiance of EU directives, its deepening ties with Russia and China, and its alignment with Donald Trump’s administration highlight the country’s growing divergence from mainstream European politics. As Orbán consolidates his nationalist agenda, Hungary’s position within the EU remains precarious, raising critical questions about the future of European unity and the bloc’s ability to uphold its democratic values in member states.
